Wednesday, November 27, 2019

Examples of Covalent Bonds and Compounds

Examples of Covalent Bonds and Compounds These are examples of covalent bonds and covalent compounds. Covalent compounds also are known as molecular compounds. Organic compounds, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, are all examples of molecular compounds. You can recognize these compounds because they consist of nonmetals bonded to each other. PCl3 - phosphorus trichlorideCH3CH2OH - ethanolO3 - ozoneH2 - hydrogenH2O - waterHCl - hydrogen chlorideCH4 - methaneNH3 - ammoniaCO2 - carbon dioxide So, for example, you would not expect to find covalent bonds in a metal or alloy, such as silver, steel, or brass. You would find ionic rather than covalent bonds in a salt, such as sodium chloride. What Determines Whether a Covalent Bond Forms? Covalent bonds form when two nonmetallic atoms have the same or similar electronegativity values. So, if two identical nonmetals (e.g., two hydrogen atoms) bond together, they will form a pure covalent bond. When two dissimilar nonmetals form bonds (e.g., hydrogen and oxygen), they will form a covalent bond, but the electrons will spend more time closer to one type of atom than the other, producing a polar covalent bond.

Saturday, November 23, 2019

How to Apply for College in the US as an International Student

How to Apply for College in the US as an International Student SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips According to the Institute of International Education, almost 975,000 international students studied at colleges in the United States last year. If you’re hoping to be one of those students, then this guide is for you. To help you through the college application process, this guide will go over all the steps you need to take, from translating your transcript to taking the TOEFL. Before jumping into the process of international student admissions, let’s review how your application process is the same as a U.S. student's and how it’s different. Applying to College: International vs. Domestic Students As an international student, you'll largely take the same steps to apply to U.S. colleges as students from the U.S.You'll just need to add a few extra steps to account for differences in languages, school curriculum, andgrading systems. Below, you'll find an overview of the main similarities and differences between applying for college as an international student in the U.S. and applying as a domestic student. How Applying Is the Same Many of the steps you’ll take to apply to college in the U.S. are the same ones that domestic students take. You should apply to several schools to increase your chances of getting accepted. Eight to nine is a good number, but some students apply to even more. You’ll apply by an early deadline, usually in November of senior year, or a regular deadline, usually in January or February of senior. Some schools have even later deadlines that fall in the spring or summer. You might use the Common Application or Universal Application, both of which can just be filled out once and sent to several schools. If any of your prospective colleges don’t accept those applications, then you’ll fill out a separate one. Your application will contain your personal information, like your name and date of birth, as well as any extracurricular activities, jobs, or internships. You’ll also send a personal essay, one or more letters of recommendation, a transcript with your high school grades, and, for most colleges, SAT or ACT scores. A few colleges also ask you to answer supplemental essay questions, which call for shorter responses than your mainpersonal essay. The bulk of the application process is the same for international and domestic students, but international college students do have to take some additional steps. Read on to find out what these steps are. How Applying Is Different There are a few extra steps if you’re applying as an international student. First, you might have to take the TOEFL if you’re from a country where the official language is something other than English. The TOEFL (or its alternative, the IELTS) is a test that demonstrates your English language proficiency. Second, you may need to get your transcript and any other academic credentials evaluated by an approved organization. This evaluation puts your courses and grades into U.S. terms so that admissions officers can understand them. If financial aid is important to you, then you’ll have to figure out whether you can obtain aid directly from colleges. Federal financial aid is only available to U.S. citizens. You might also apply foroutside scholarships. Finally, you’ll need to sort out the legal requirements of living in the U.S. by applying for a student visa. Usually, you apply for your student visa after gaining admission to a college and accepting a place in the next class. Now that you have a sense of the unique requirements for international student admission, let’s dive into the application process, step by step. Read on to learn how each piece of the international student application fits together! How to Apply to College as an International Student Many colleges are seeking to make their campuses more globalizedand welcome international applicants. At the same time, there aren’t as many spots available for international students in the USA as there are for domestic applicants, so you shouldmake sure you understand the college process and can send off the strongest application possible. Colleges vary in their individual policies and requirements, but for the most part, they all ask for the same materials. Most collegesask forthe following: Application High school transcript SAT or ACT scores TOEFL scores Personal essay (and any supplemental essays) Letters of recommendation Many of these components take months or even years to prepare, so college planning should start early in high school. Let’s talk about each of these application components in detail, along with tips for preparing each. The Application You can think of your application - the actual forms that contain your personal information - as the umbrella that covers all the other documents you’ll send. Each school has its own application, but many accept the Common Application and/or the Universal Application. These are both free services that allow you to fill out just one application and send it to several schools. Colleges that don’t accept these applications, such asstate schools in California and Texas, have their own application systems. Regardless of whether you use the Common Application or a school-specific application, you’ll find that both look pretty similar. Applications will ask for your personal information, like your name, address, schools attended, and any extracurricular activities. If your school requires an essay, then you’ll usually paste your essay into your application. You may also invite recommenders via email to upload their reference letters. While creating an account and filling out your application is free, submitting it requires a fee. Some schools have no application fee while others cost as much as $80 or $90. The average application fee is around $35 to $40. If the fees are burdensome, you may be able to obtain a college application fee waiver from the colleges that you’re interested in. Below you’ll find a few more tips to help you prepare your college applications. Tips for Your College Application Preparing to apply to college is a process that can start at the beginning of high school. Colleges will look at all four years of your classes, grades, and extracurricular involvements, so it helps to consider your college goals as you make choices throughout 9th, 10th, th, and 12th grade. Most students apply to several colleges; typically, eight or nine is a good number. That way they can maximize their chances of getting accepted. Students usually apply to two to three safety schools, or ones where their credentials are well above that of the average accepted student. They also apply to schools to which getting accepted is more challenging - usually two to three match schools and two to three reach schools. The application forms themselves are not all that time-intensive. You should give yourself at least a month before your deadlines to fill them out and proofread for any errors. As an international student, you might be in a good positionto emphasize any language skills or unique multicultural experiences that you have. The aspects of your application that require months, if not years, of planning, are your SAT/ACT scores, TOEFL scores, essay, and letters of recommendation, as you’ll learn more about below. First, let’s consider another piece of your college application, your high school transcript. Depending on college policy, you might need to translate your transcript. High School Transcript To determine admission, colleges look closely at high school grades. To show schools this important information, you’ll send an official transcript. Usually, your school must send your transcript in a sealed envelope. For some schools, you can send your transcript directly. Others will ask you to get it translated and certified by an official credential service. If your school uses a different grading system than the 4.0 scale used in the U.S., then you may have to send off your transcript for evaluation. This transcript service may cost around $100. The company should be a member of NACES, the National Association of Credential Evaluation Services, like World Education Services, Inc. Some colleges will allow you to use unofficial translators. Tufts, for example, says â€Å"Acceptable translators include English teachers or other school officials, professional translators, or a local EducationUSA office. Students do not need to utilize credential evaluation companies of any sort.† Read on a few tips for sending your high school transcript to U.S. colleges. Tips for Your High School Transcript Colleges look at your grades throughout high school, as well as your course selection. They consideryour commitment to your academics, your progress in particular subjects, and the extent to which you challenged yourselfwithhigher level courses. Each college sets its own admissions policies, so make sure to research each school on your list about what it wants you to do with your transcript. You should be able to find this on the international admissions page on its website. If you can’t find this information online, you should email or call the admissions office directly. If you need to use an evaluation service, then you'll have toplan especially early. These services typically take about seven business days after receiving your documents. You might start the process about a month before your deadlines to make sure everything arrives in time. In addition to your grades, your SAT or ACT scores are another important part of your college application. Below we'll take a closer look at thestandardized testing partof your college applications. Schools may be very different from one another,so standardized tests, like the SAT and ACT, are usedto bridge the gap. SAT or ACT Scores For most four-year U.S. colleges, your SAT or ACT scores are an important part of your candidacy. Colleges consider both tests equally, so it’s up to you to decide which one you’d rather take. Some colleges additionally require SAT Subject Tests, though they usually waive this requirement if you send ACT scores. While you can self-report your scores on your application, you’ll need to send official score reports via your College Board (for the SAT) or ACT, Inc (for the ACT) accounts. If you send multiple score reports, many colleges will â€Å"superscore† your results, or take your highest scores by section and recombine them into the highest possible composite score. The SAT and ACT require lots of prep and planning, and we have tons of resources to help you achieve your target scores. For now, let’s go over a few of the most important tips for planning for these important tests. Tips for the SAT and ACT The SAT and ACT are challenging tests, and both require a lot of prep to do well. To start your planning, you first need to decide which test to take. Familiarize yourself with their similarities and differences, and choose the one on which you can gain the higher score. Then, you canset a goal for yourself. Determine your target scores based on personal goals and your colleges’ expectations. Most colleges publicize the average SAT or ACT scores of accepted students, and you can also find this information on PrepScholar’s database of schools by searching for "name of college + PrepScholar."Once you know the average, you can aim for an even stronger score to be a competitive candidate. You might start your prep with a timed practice test to gauge your current scoring level and diagnose your strengths and weaknesses. Depending on how much you seek to improve, you can figure out how long you need to study. A score improvement of only 30 points on the SAT may just call for about 20 hours of studying, for example, while a score improvement of a few hundred points could require over 150 hours. Lots of students take the SAT or ACTmore than once to achieve their target scores. As mentioned above, many colleges superscore your results,so you don’t have to worry about increasing your score in one section but decreasing in another. If retaking the SAT or ACT is in your plans, then you’ll need to leave yourself enough opportunities to retest. You might take the SAT or ACT for the first time in your sophomore year. That way, you can take it again as a junior, and even in the fall of senior year if you seek improvement. Your SAT and ACT scores show that you have the academic skills to succeed at the college level. If you’re a non-native English speaker, then you may also have to take the TOEFL to demonstrate that you have college-ready English language skills. Hope you're feeling chatty! The TOEFL will get you speaking in English. TOEFL Scores If your native language is something other than English, then you may have to take the TOEFL (or its counterpart, the IELTS) to demonstrate your English language proficiency. Unlike the SAT or ACT, the TOEFL is computer-based in most countries. Its scoring scale ranges from 0 to 120, and it tests your Reading, Listening, Speaking, and Writing skills. Many schools require a minimum TOEFL score. If you don’t have the requisite TOEFL scores, then the rest of your application doesn’t matter! The TOEFL is definitely a test to be taken seriously if you want to study at a U.S. college. Like the SAT or ACT, you could take the TOEFL more than once to achieve your target scores. Here are just a few examples of colleges with a TOEFL requirement. The TOEFL iBT is the internet-based test; the less common TOEFL PBT is the paper-based test, and its scoring scale ranges from 310 to 677. College TOEFL iBT TOEFL PBT American University 100 600 Boston University 95 550-600 Harvard 100 600 Northeastern 79-80 550 Penn State 90 550 UCLA 87 560 A few schools will waive the TOEFL requirement if you achieve a minimum score on the verbal sections of the SAT or ACT. Because these sections require strong English skills, they can sometimes act as a stand-in for the TOEFL. As with every other part of your application, you’ll need to research each college of interest to learn about its stance and plan accordingly. Below you’ll find a few more tips for planning for the TOEFL. Tips for the TOEFL As an international student, you may have the double challenge of prepping for the both the SAT or ACT and the TOEFL. You’ll have to set aside time to study for both tests and arrange a testing schedule that works for you. Like the SAT or ACT, you may want to start studying at least three months before your first test date. Set aside several hours each week to review with high-quality practice materials and take practice tests. The earlier you start, the more available test dates you’ll have to retake the TOEFL if need be. If you have strong language skills early in high school, then you might consider taking the TOEFL in 9th or 10th grade. Then you can devote even more timeto other tests and application components. If you wait until later in your high school career, then you should take the time to devise a study plan that balances your time between both the TOEFL and the SAT (or ACT). In addition to your grades and test scores, admissions officers are also interested in learning more about you as a person. One way that they accomplishthis is by reading your personal essay. Your college essay can be about whatever you want! This one about the megastore, Costco, got its writer into five Ivy League schools. College Essays Many 4-year colleges claim to use a holistic admissions process, in which they consider not just your grades and test scores, but also your personal qualities and motivations. One way that they get to know you as a person is through your personal essay. In your personal essay, you’ll typically be asked to reflect on a meaningful experience in your life and how it shaped your identity. What you choose to write about should reveal something significant about your values, and your essay as a whole will show your writing style and thought process. If you use the Common Application to apply to colleges, then you’ll choose one of five prompts for your essay. Here are just three examples of Common Application essay prompts: The lessons we take from failure can be fundamental to later success. Recount an incident or time when you experienced failure. How did it affect you, and what did you learn from the experience Reflect on a time when you challenged a belief or idea. What prompted you to act? Would you make the same decision again? Discuss an accomplishment or event, formal or informal, that marked your transition from childhood to adulthood within your culture, community, or family. As you can see, the essay prompts ask you to share something personal and meaningful. Schools that don’t use the Common Application will likely have their own essay prompt. They might look similar to the ones above or simply ask why you want to attend the college and to describe some of your future goals. Some colleges, especially the more selective ones, will ask additional supplemental essay questions. These are shorter in length, perhaps a few paragraphs or less, and vary by school. They might ask why you want to attend the school or to talk about a favorite book or artist. Some are abstract, like Tufts’ question, â€Å"What makes you happy?† Others are kind of random, like the University of Virginia’s recent prompt, â€Å"To tweet or not to tweet?† Whatever the supplemental questions, they vary by college and should not be overlooked. Below you’ll find a few tips for writing your college essays. Tips for Your College Essays The college essay is a unique piece of writing. It requires you to be introspective and to share something that’s meaningful to you on a personal level. The best essays tend to zero in on a particular experience that reveals something significant about the writer’s identity. The personal essay’s a challenging assignment, so you should give yourself several months to work on it. You might take several weeks to brainstorm the right topic. Once you come up with a draft, you might share with teachers, friends, and families for feedback. Ultimately, though, the essay should be in your voice and stay true to who you are. As an international student, you may be able to bring unique multicultural experiences or language skills to campus. Your essay’s a great opportunity to share your perspective and show admissions officers why it should be represented on campus. Supplemental essays, while not as lengthy as the personal essay, are also an important part of your application. Probably the most common mistake that students make with supplemental essays is rushing through them and producing generic answers. Your supplemental essays should be specific and customized to each school.They’re typically an opportunity for you to show what you know about the college and your particular reasons for wanting to attend. While admissions officers learn about you from your personal essays, they also get to know you through your recommendation letters. Rather than hearing your voice, they hear what your teachers and/or counselor have to say about you. Ask a teacher who's happy to paint a flattering picture of you in her letter of recommendation. Letters of Recommendation The final important piece of your college applications isyour letters of recommendation. Requirements for reference letters vary; some colleges don’t ask for any, while others ask for one, two, or even three. Usually, colleges want to see one or two recommendations from teachers and one from your school counselor. If you don’t have a counselor, then you might get one from a principal or other administrator. You’ll choose your recommenders and ask them if they’d be willing to provide you with a recommendation. Then you’ll invite them to submit their letters through your online application. Your recommendation letters should speak to both your academic and personal qualities. Like your essays and the rest of your application, they should give admissions officers insight into your strengths and skills as a student, as well as your personality and character. In addition to our in-depth guides on recommendation letters for college, you’ll find a few tips below. Tips for Your Letters of Recommendation Just as you should give yourself plenty of time to write your college essay, you should give your recommenders sufficienttime to write your letters. You should ask your recommenders at least one month before your deadlines. You might also ask at the end of junior year. It’s best to ask teachers who had you recently and for a whole year; junior year teachers tend to be a good bet. If your teachers write in another language, then you’ll have to get your letters translated. The best letters come from educators who know you well, so you should ask teachers with whom you have a strong connection. You might also share your own thoughts and ideas via conversation and a â€Å"brag sheet,† a document you can prepare to help your teachers. You couldtalk aboutyour favorite classes, significant experiences, and academic and personal goals for college. For many colleges, your recommendation letters are a very important part of your college application. Admissions officers are sifting through many strong applicants and trying to gain a clearer idea of who you are as a person. Your recommendation letters are a great opportunity to showcase your positive relationships with your teachers and successes in school. Now that we’ve gone over the main parts of your college application - the application itself, transcript, standardized testing scores, essays, and letters of recommendation - let’s consider some final tips for applying to college as an international student. Keep these final tips in mind as you make plans togrow academically and personally at a U.S. college. Applying to College as an International Student: 3 Final Tips Applying to college is a complex process, and it becomes even more complicated for international college students due to additional steps, like taking the TOEFL and having your materials translated and certified. By familiarizing yourself with the entire process, you can make sure that you have enough time to prepare all your materials by the deadline. With this knowledge, you can produce a competitive application that will secure you a spot at a U.S. college. As you work your way through the steps, remember these three key tips. 1. Don’t Underestimate the SAT/ACT or TOEFL Doing well on standardized tests is important for all college applicants, and it becomes even more significant for international students in the USA. The TOEFL shows admissions officers that you have the reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills to succeed in college-level classes. The SAT and ACT, furthermore, show your academic skills and college readiness. These tests are meant to measure students on a level playing field, regardless of differences in individual high schools and curriculum (though of course, how well they do this is a matter of debate). Admissions officers may be unfamiliar with your school abroad, so they especially rely on these test scores to make sure you have college-ready skills. As discussed above, you should set aside several months to prep for each test and leave yourself additional test dates if you want to retest and achieve your target scores. If your sights are set on a U.S. college, then make sure you have the SAT or ACT and TOEFL scores to compete with other applicants. 2. Remember that Many Colleges Use a Holistic Process While test scores are important, remember that they’re not the only part of your application. Many colleges use a holistic process to admit students, in which they consider your personal qualities and impact in your school community. Admissions officers want to learn about your interests and pursuits in and out of school. They’re interested in your extracurricular involvements and any leadership positions. They want to see if you’ve done community service, volunteered, or worked a part-time or summer job. They also gain a sense of your role in your school community through your letters of recommendation. Admissions officers tend to be more impressed by deep involvement in a few areas than scattered participation in many areas. You might keep this in mind as you move through high school and choose your activities, as well as when you describe your involvements on your application. Ultimately, applying to college requires a lot of self-reflection about your identity and goals for the future. Think about what’s important to you and what you hope to achieve. Then, reflect this self-awareness through your essays and application as a whole. 3. Plan Early! Finally, the importance of planning early cannot be emphasized enough! There are a lot of moving parts that go into a college application, and none of them can be completed in a short time frame. Admissions officers are interested in all four years of high school, so planning early willhelp you make informed choices about your courses and involvements. For instance, you should try to challenge yourself in one or more upper-level classes and stick with an activity or two throughout your time in high school. Follow your interests and you may have a sense of what subject you’d like to choose as your major once you arrive at college. In the end, you college application will tell a story to admissions officers about your high school experience and identity. By planning early, you can make the most of these years with a goal-oriented, proactive mindset. All of your hard work will pay off when you send off a great college application that gets you accepted into your dream school! What’s Next? Are you figuring out where to apply to college? This guide will help you research colleges and find the best ones for you. Will you be taking the TOEFL and the SAT? Check out this comprehensive guide to learn about the TOEFL and SAT and how to prepare for both. Are you getting ready for the SAT? To help you prepare, we’ve compiled our best articles in the Ultimate Study Guide for the SAT. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Thursday, November 21, 2019

Dance 100 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dance 100 - Essay Example While the tune yard dance has human voice in the sound, dancing in the rain only has a background tune. Dancing in the rain presents numerous elements of connection concept, where the dancers move close and away from one another throughput the dance. Throughout the dance sequence connection becomes increasingly clear as the dancers move across the entire dancing floor. There are momentary numerous instances when the smooth movement of the dancers occurs with instant stops of the movement. The body movements of the dancers remain extremely unique and display immense mastery of the movement. Extensions of the arms and the sliding movements of the legs appear to be enhanced by the occurrence of water on the ground, which enables the movement. Tune yards present the concept of lead follow in performing the dance. A single dancer appears in front of the rest as the leader with the remainder of the dancers following dance moves which the leader utilises. Throughout the dance movements of the dancers within the dance always has a leading individual with the others following the movements developed by the leader. The dancers contribute significantly to the music through singing and making other sounds which create the music. The movement of the dancers is well coordinated and the use the same moves for the entire group throughout the dance. This appears to make the dance coordinated and well planned. Choreographers of the dance appear to have selected different scenes which appear to fit the setting of the dance being performed. The beginning of the dances clearly identify the setting of dance through identifying the location which the dance takes place. The uniformity of the tune yards dance is presented through the dancers being dressed in a uniform dress-code. Dancing in the rain, however, presents dancers doing independent dance styles and the dancers are also dressed in different clothing. The patterns and coordination in the two dances can be

Tuesday, November 19, 2019

People Management Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

People Management - Coursework Example The employer is expected to protect the employee’s interest and respect the role they play in the organization. On the other hand, the employee is expected to perform tasks as per the guidelines of the employer. In essence, psychological contract enhances a silent working environment and promotes respect between the employees and the employer. George (2009) argues that the basic feature of a psychological contract is the mutual obligation between the employer and the employee. Both parties to the contract have responsibilities and obligations to fulfill in relation to each other. Even though the content of the contract is not presented in writing, both parties have to know their responsibility as far as the subject matter is concerned. The obligations of each party are intangible and cannot be measured by the available conventional means. In this regard, the obligations are inbuilt, and it is only the parties to the contract who understands them. In essence, both the employer and the employee must perform their responsibilities accordingly to enhance quality performance and timely completion of tasks. Psychological contracts are unique in that the terms and conditions are a matter of personal perceptions. The psychological contract is complex since no available source can be found to ascertain that the contract was entered. Further complexity is observed in the fact that people’s perceptions change regular, and it is usually hard to comprehend what other people are thinking or planning to do. In addition, in case of a breach of the psychological contract, a third party cannot intervene since the contract is only known to the employee and the employer. Essentially, it is crucial to recognize that perception are sometimes seasonal and, therefore, understanding the content of the psychological contract by a third party can be extremely

Sunday, November 17, 2019

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay Example for Free

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay Introduction Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that presents in form of anxiety disorder, and it usually develops following exposure to an event or incident that is terrifying and mostly associated with an increased risk or actual occurrence of severe body harm. These events exceed the coping capabilities of the individual, resulting into psychological trauma. As a result of the trauma, the affected individual develops fear conditioning in their brain, possibly because of certain brain chemicals that are released. Some structures in the brain are also thought to undergo atrophy. The risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder is also influenced by genetics and personal characteristics, for example childhood experience, previous exposure and preexisting conditions such as depression, gender and degree of exposure to trauma (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Most people who develop this condition are those who have been exposed to traumatic incidents in their childhood or adulthood, like natural disasters, manmade disasters, accidents, military combat, and violent physical abuse, as individuals or witnessing someone else undergo the incidents. About two thirds of the population worldwide becomes exposed to significant traumatic situations in the course of their lifetime. The level of exposure to or experience of a traumatic event is consistently associated with the likelihood of developing PSTD. The development of post traumatic stress disorder also shows significant correlation with poor socioeconomic settings, age, race, ethnicity, and employment status. The affected people undergo continuous frightening thoughts as they recall the terrifying experiences, often having sleep problems and feeling detached and becoming withdrawn. The patients develop psychological problems such as neuroticism, guilt, difficulties in concentration, poor coping skills, and obsessive symptoms. The level of social support available for the people who have been exposed to traumatic events is the strongest determinant of the risk of post traumatic stress disorder (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Post traumatic stress disorder is classified as acute, chronic or delayed onset. Acute posttraumatic stress disorder presents with symptoms that do not persist beyond three months, while in the chronic form the symptoms last more than three months. Delayed onset post traumatic stress disorder is the one in which the symptoms start appearing about six months following exposure to the traumatic event. As compared to normal stress that is usually associated with acute reactions that rapidly return to the normal state, the biological and psychological mechanisms in post traumatic stress disorder are chronic and often become severe with time (Fullerto n Ursano, 2005). Current treatment of post traumatic stress disorder includes exposure therapies and anxiety management trainings as the first-line treatments. Pharmacological therapies such as the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have also been designed and shown to be effective, though intensive studies are in progress to develop other form of drugs. In spite of the possible efficacy of pharmaceutical interventions, psychological treatments still remain the preferred therapeutic approaches for this disorder (Keane, Marshall Taft, 2006). The outcome of the therapeutic interventions depends on the level of social support, and lack of symptoms such as avoidance, emotional numbing and hyperarousal. According to Keane, Marshall and Taft (2006), PSTD has been in existence for many centuries though it became recognized in the 1980. This condition was commonly linked to warfare, until studies demonstrated the occurrence of similar symptoms in the civilian population exposed to natural disasters, mass catastrophes and tragic accidents. Prior to this, post traumatic stress disorder was identified by different names such as, â€Å"shell shock, battle fatigue, accident neurosis, and post-rape syndrome† (Keane, Marshall Taft 2006, p.163). After the American Psychiatric Association classified post traumatic stress disorder, it was generally agreed that the condition resulted from traumatic events and not the previously perceived individual weakness. However, these traumatic events were taken to be stressors beyond the daily human experiences including war, natural calamities, manmade disasters, and rape among others. Symptoms of PSTD Symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder frequently alter the patient’s personal life and can affect one’s functional abilities. These symptoms mostly start immediately after the traumatic experience, but often they may appear several months or years since the exposure. These symptoms are classified into four types including reliving, avoidance, numbing and hyperarousal (Fletcher, 1996). Patients suffering from this disorder frequently relive memories of the traumatic incidents in form of flashback and nightmares. This reliving of traumatic events is often triggered by stimuli related to the event. Avoidance of scenes related to the traumatic event is also a common symptom presenting in individuals with post traumatic stress disorder. The patients show a tendency to avoid stimuli and triggers that are associated with the traumatic memories, and may engage in activities to keep them from thinking or discussing such events. Numbness may also manifest as a way of avoiding the traumatic memories. Hyperarousal is another common symptom in PSTD patients, whereby the victims become highly alert and lookout for threats. This makes the patients to become very irritable and have difficulties in concentrating. The patients may also develop sleeping disorders, exhibit violent behavior and startled responses (Rosen, 2004). Information processing in patients with PSTD Various models have been developed to explain the memory and concentration problems manifested by patients affected by post traumatic stress disorder. These models relate the cognitive problems with these patients with the changes in the brain structures that function in learning and memory. The first model is described as fear structure, whereby the brain of the affected individuals become programmed to process information associated with the threatening experience and subsequent physiological, physical and behavioral responses. Another information processing model is based on cognitive theory, with an assumption that the disorder progresses only if a person perceives the traumatic incident in a manner that makes the incident to become threatening after it has taken place. The perception of the trauma as being present results into intrusions and reliving symptoms, anxiety, and over alertness. Subsequently, the affected individual tries to decrease perceptions of the threat through behavioral and cognitive modifications, although these changes further perpetuate the symptoms (Rosen, 2004). Prevalence of PSTD Epidemiologic studies indicate that about 10 percent of the universal population experience PSTD at some point in their lifetime. Epidemiologic surveys also indicate that between a third and two-thirds of the world population experience or witness trauma at some point in life. The most common forms of traumatic events people get exposed to or experience in developed countries include grave harm or death, fire disasters, natural calamities, and life-threatening accidents. The most prevalent forms of trauma experienced by females are rape, sexual exploitation and abuse, physical assault, and neglect, while physical assault and military-related trauma are more prevalent in males (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Post traumatic stress disorder can occur at any age, and the period it takes to develop following exposure or experiencing of a traumatic event ranges from hours to years. The prevalence of PSTD in the general population is higher in females as compared to males, with an estimated prevalence of 10 percent and 5 percent respectively. Among individuals exposed to trauma, the prevalence of post traumatic stress disorder in males is 8 percent, while in females it is about 20 percent. The prevalence differences across gender lines are thought to be related to the specific form of trauma experienced. For instance, it has been shown that females who experience physical assault or are threatened with a weapon are at a high risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder as compared to men subjected to the same trauma. Similarly, males who experience sexual abuse are at a higher risk of developing PSTD as compared to the females who also experience the same stressor. Additionally, exposure to interpersonal violence among women is positively associated with later development of post traumatic stress disorder. In general, exposure to interpersonal violence is s trongly associated with the development of PSTD as compared to traumatic events that occur without a human perpetrator. Further studies show that of the entire population that experience or witness severe trauma at some point in their life, it is less than 20 percent who develop post traumatic stress disorder, thus suggesting the existence of many risk factors (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). The prevalence is significantly increased in countries where rates of violence, crimes and war are high, and also in parts of the world that are more prone to natural catastrophes. Younger age appears to be associated with a higher risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder (Keanne, Marshall, Taft, 2006). Meta analysis studies have also shown that children and teenagers who get exposed to traumatic events are 1.5 times likely to develop post traumatic stress disorder than adults exposed to the same trauma. These findings suggest that the developmental process of the disorder in young individuals varies from that of the adults. Lower education achievement is also associated with increased risk for this disorder. Other factors associated with high prevalence of post traumatic stress disorder include pre-existing psychiatric problems, juvenile delinquency, childhood adversity, personality disorders, genetic factors, severity of the trauma, and lack of social support (Schnurr, Friedman Bernardy, 2002). Though findings on race are not consistent, a strong correlation has been shown to exist between the race of a person and the development of post traumatic disorder. Some studies have indicated that whites have a lower risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder as compared to nonwhites, even when other risk factors like exposure to traumatic events are held constant (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Study findings have established that chronic PSTD is mostly associated with some psychiatric conditions and impaired psychosocial activities. Among these comorbid conditions include, â€Å"major depression, dysthemia, mania, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, simple phobia, agoraphobia, alcohol abuse/dependence, drug abuse, social phobia, and conduct disorder† (Schnurr, Friedman Bernardy 2002, p. 880). Despite these psychiatric conditions being risk factors for post traumatic stress disorder, the disorder itself can also be a predisposing factor for the psychiatric conditions. Etiology of PSTD The major etiologic factor in PSTD is the trauma. However, various studies have shown that not all individuals who get exposed to same traumatic events develop the disorder, thus indicating the existence of certain predisposing conditions. Recognition that trauma alone may not be the sole cause of post traumatic stress disorder and the observations that not all people who get exposed to traumatic events develop the disorder have led to identification of various aspects where individual differences may determine vulnerability. These aspects include appraisal tendencies, genetic makeup, and certain risk factors (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Appraisal tendencies relate to the individual perceptions of situations or events, whereby some individuals are likely to consider situation or events as threatening or horrifying as compared to other individuals. Clinical studies have shown that many individuals who experience or witness traumatic events do not develop post traumatic stress disorder. This is attributed to the individual variations on the ability to cope with traumatic situations, thus different individuals possess differing psychological reactions to similar traumatic situations. It has, therefore, been recognized that exposure to traumatic events gets perceived through cognitive and emotional mechanisms involving appraisal (Vieweg et al., 2006). Whereas some individuals may perceive a situation or event as a huge threat, others may perceive the same situation as a challenge that demands them to evolve coping abilities. A number of risk factors that render some people more vulnerable to developing post traumatic stress disorder than others have been identified. These risk factors are classified as pre-traumatic, traumatic or post-traumatic (Vieweg et al., 2006). Pre-traumatic factors that may predict later development of post traumatic stress disorder as identified by various studies are childhood trauma, the existence of psychiatric problems, childhood maladaptive behaviors, poor family background, introversion, gender, and existence of physical health problems among others. Studies on early periods of development show an increasing relationship between early life trauma and a greater likelihood for the development of PSTD (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006; Edsall, Karnik Steiner, 2005). This hypothesis is, however, supported by few data obtained from small samples. But still, it is well established that childhood abuse and experience of other trauma early in life are partially responsible for the manifestation of post PSTD later in life in the general adult population. In a study carried out in the USA by MaCauley et al. (1997), it was shown that a significantly high number of women with a greater disposition to develop post traumatic stress disorder had undergone early life physical assault, sexual abuse or serious neglect. The study investigated about 2000 adult females drawn from different socioeconomic groups, and who were attending primary care internal medicine practices. McCauley and colleagues found that 22 percent of the study population experienced many physical symptoms with much higher levels of, â€Å"depression, anxiety, somatization and interpersonal sensitivity, a fivefold higher prevalence of drug abuse and a twofold higher level of alcohol abuse† (McCauley et al. 1997, p. 1367). In general, the data supports the established models of risk for the development of PSTD, whereby genetic predisposition, temperament and childhood or adulthood trauma are significant risks factors for PSTD development. Therefore, the recent trauma experienced by an individual also triggers the development of post traumatic stress disorder. This has been shown to arise from the effects of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF), which is a hormone involved in regulating the autonomic, immune and behavioral reactions to any stress. Increased secretion of corticotropin releasing factor is associated with increased expression of psychiatric symptoms, including PSTD symptoms (Sapolsky, 1996). With regard to traumatic factors, many studies on post traumatic stress disorder have shown that there exists a direct relationship between severity of the trauma and subsequent development of the disorder. The severity of the trauma includes characteristics like the length of time the trauma took, the frequency of occurrence and the degree of harm or threat on life. Other aspects of the severity of trauma are the severity of the experience, whether somebody was harmed during the incident, whether the victim was involved directly or witnessed the trauma, and in case of sexual abuse, if the perpetrator of the atrocity was previously known to the victim. The severity of the trauma and PSTD are very consistent in the entire population, with high severity associated with increased risk for post traumatic stress disorder or severity of its symptoms (Edsall, Karnik Steiner, 2005). Studies have also shown that the post traumatic environment is also connected to later development of PSTD. Environments that are characterized by poor social support and disoriented social interaction patterns make people more vulnerable to develop post traumatic stress disorder (Ford, 2009). It has been shown that people who experience traumatic events such as rape victims and war veterans suffer from deleterious effects due to lack of post traumatic social support. Similarly, a number of studies have shown that post traumatic clinical interventions like debriefing are effective preventing later development of PSTD. Pathophysiology of PSTD Major psychobiologic processes that give human beings capabilities to effectively deal with stressful events have been shown to be impaired in individuals having PSTD. Among the affected processes include the fight and flight responses, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, the fear conditioning, appraisal and the acoustic startle reactions (Ford, 2009). The fight and flight responses are brought about by the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system. In normal persons, the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system by a traumatic event results into a sequence of autonomic and muscular responses, which provide the person with capabilities to cope with the possible threat. However in people who have PSTD, it has been established that sympathetic nervous system responses and adrenergic dysregulation are excessively elevated. Even minor trauma related stimuli have been observed to trigger autonomic hyperresponsiveness. It has also been found that the amount of catecholamine in the urine of the victim is significantly increased. Other sympathetic nervous system abnormalities observed include, â€Å"down regulation of beta-2 and alpha-2 adrenergic receptors and increased reactivity to the alpha-2 antagonist yohimbine† (Ford 2009, p. 37). Increased reactivity of yohimbine is associated with triggering of panic attacks and trauma-related memories in people suffering from PSTD. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system also acts to enhance the ability of people to cope effectively with stress. In patients who are experiencing post traumatic stress disorder, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system is poorly modulated and the victims exhibit abnormal features like decreased amounts of cortisol in urine, increased amounts of lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptor and excessively inhibited dexamethasone (Sapolsky, 1996). Another psychobiologic process that has been shown to be impaired in patients with PSTD is the acoustic startle response. In normal individuals, the acoustic startle system helps in creating awareness of any possible threat. However, in patients affected by the disorder, they exhibit a reduced latency and elevated amplitude in acoustic-startle-eyeblink reflex. Besides, the patients also show marginally reduced normal dysregulation of the startle reflex (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Fear conditioning mechanisms have also been shown to be impaired in patients with PSTD. In normal individuals, fear conditioning mechanisms facilitate the storage of information relating to exposure or experience of aversive and threatening events, thus providing one with capabilities to cope with similar challenges in future (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Studies have, however, shown that people who suffer from this disorder exhibit a characteristic progression of the fear conditioning, evoking excessive emotion al responses to perceived threats (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012). Appraisal process has also been shown to be diminished in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Appraisal is a psychological process through which people develop capabilities to determine the nature of an event or situation, whether it is pleasant, challenging or threatening. This in turn determines the coping, adapting and survival abilities of the individual. Patients with PSTD lack these abilities and often perceive the world as unsafe, leading to development of deleterious cognitive, emotional and behavioral effects. (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012) Another possible pathophysiologic mechanism involved in posttraumatic stress disorder relates to brain abnormalities in terms of structure and function (Ford, 2009). Various studies using magnetic resonance imaging techniques have demonstrated that the hippocampus volume in patients who suffer from PSTD who were previously exposed to traumatic events is significantly decreased (Fletcher, Creamer Forbes, 2010). These findings have been supported by animal studies, which have shown that continued stress causes hippocampus degeneration and loss of function of apical dendrite nerve cells. It has been hypothesized that this degeneration is as a result of secretion of neurotoxic amino acids by the increased quantities of glucocorticoids. Studies using positron emission tomography have also indicated some functional brain abnormalities in individuals who are affected by PSTD. These studies have suggested elevated regional cerebral circulatory around the limbic and paralimbic regions. These regions play a role in the recognition and processing of emotions and stimuli, thus signifying their possible functions in the regulation of fear conditioning and appraisal (Rosen, 2004). Neurobiological aspects of PSTD Traumatic events directly stimulate the catecholamine system, triggering fight and flight responses such as rates of cardiac activity, blood circulation, metabolism, and alertness. Subsequently, the hypothalamus is stimulated to release corticotropin-releasing hormone, thus activating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis due to the resultant stimulation of the pituitary gland and subsequent release of adrenocorticotropin hormone (Fullerton Ursano, 2005) Furthermore, cortisol is secreted by the adrenal glands, leading to increased stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system. All these responses serve to provide a person with coping and survival abilities when faced with a threatening or dangerous situation. However when the trauma experienced or witnessed is chronic, these fight and flight responses often become counterproductive. Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis finally restores cortisol to normal levels through a negative feedback mechanism. In some instan ces, however, the catecholamine system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis may become poorly modulated, thus impeding normal trauma- and stress-related responses and leading to development of the deleterious effects of PSTD (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). Various studies have shown that poor modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and increased amounts of catecholamine generated by trauma adversely impair neuronal development in the brain. This occurs through different mechanisms such as increased degeneration of the nerve cells, impairment of the myelination process, reduction of the quantity and size of dendritic processes, impairment in neural pruning, suppression of the synthesis of nerve cells, and a reduction in the synthesis of neutrophic factor by the brain cells (Schnurr, Friedman, Bernardy, 2002). Exposure to traumatic events has also been shown to cause certain structural changes in the nervous system, including â€Å"reduced corpus callosum size, attenuated development of the left neocortex, hippocampus and amygdala, enhanced electrical irritability in limbic structures, and reduced functional activity of the cerebellar vermis† (Edsall, Karnik Steiner 2005, p. 110). The parts of the brain that become impacted by traumatic events have been shown to exhibit postnatal development for long periods of time, possess increased levels of glucocorticoid receptors and some formation of the nerve cells in the postnatal period. The above damages to the regions of the brain may cause the affected person to develop socialization, attachment, bonding and cognitive problems. The Catecholamine system and Trauma Studies have shown that trauma may affect the catecholamine system, as demonstrated by the increased levels of noreadrenaline and dopamine excreted in urine in people with PSTD. It has also been shown that the concentration of the catecholamine in urine in the patients relates to the length of time one is exposed to the traumatic event, and also to the severity of the disorder cells (Schnurr, Friedman, Bernardy, 2002). The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and Trauma Investigations on the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the development of post traumatic stress disorder have indicated that affected children have elevated basal amounts of cortisal, while the affected adults have reduced amounts. The reduced cortisol levels in adults who are suffering from chronic PSTD is thought to be caused by the down-regulation of the anterior pituitary corticotropin-releasing hormone binding sites following the increase in corticotropin-releasing hormone levels, in addition to the increased negative feedback suppression of cortisol amounts by the pituitary gland. The down regulation process is considered as an adaptation response against the chronically increased amounts of cortisol, which may cause neurotoxicity cells (Schnurr, Friedman, Bernardy, 2002). Other studies have hypothesized the decreased baseline cortisal amounts in adults to result from adrenal insufficiency and chronically reduced secretion of cortisal from the adrenal glands. This hypothesis is supported by findings that adults with post traumatic stress disorder show increased adrenocorticotropin hormonal response to corticotropin releasing factor than normal persons (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). The observations that the baseline cortisal amounts are increased in children who have been exposed to traumatic situations have post traumatic disorder indicates different physiological impacts compared to adults, though similar studies have yielded contrasting results indicating the cortisal levels to be increased. The variations in baseline cortisol amounts among children may be related to factors such as developmental stage of the child during the trauma experience and the period of time that has passed since the trauma occurred (Wolfgang et al., 2012). It is generally suggested that corticotropin releasing hormone and cortisol amounts are increased acutely after exposure to trauma, while developmental effects of the traumatic experience result into reduced amounts of cortisol because of the consistently increased corticotropin releasing hormone and the raised hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis negative feedback mechanism (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). Functional and structural changes in the brain due to traumatic stress A number of literatures continue to indicate that glucocorticoids have some effects on the hippocampus in individuals who are suffering from post traumatic stress disorder. Most of these studies have demonstrated a reduction of the hippocampus in adult individuals with PSTD. The atrophy of the hippocampus is also reported in various conditions characterized by excessive secretion of glucocorticoid, such as the Cushing syndrome and recurrent major depressive disorder. Further, it has also been demonstrated that the neurotoxic effects of glucocorticoid may be due to chronically increased levels of excitatory amino acids like glutamate (Sapolsky, 1996). Studies using magnetic resonance imaging have shown that adults previously exposed to trauma and who have developed post traumatic stress disorder have significantly decreased hippocampus volumes. Hippocampal atrophy has, however, not been observed in children suffering from this disorder. Instead, these children have, â€Å"smaller intracranial, cerebral, and prefrontal cortex, prefrontal cortical white matter, right temporal lobe volumes, and smaller areas of the corpus callosum† (Edsall, Karnik Steiner 2005, p. 114). These neurobiological observations are possibly caused by reduced cortical hemispheres communication because of memory impairment and dissociative disorders associated with PSTD (Sapolsky, 1996). The differences in brain structure between adults and children suffering from PSTD has been hypothesized to arise from co-occurrence of other disorders such as those associated with drug and alcohol abuse in adults. It is also suggested that stress response tend to gradual, thus the neurobiological changes develop over time. Many brain structures, including the hippocampus are known to continue developing after birth. Studies have established that the hippocampus depicts increased formation of axons, dendrites, synapses and receptors, which become pruned after puberty (Vieweg et al., 2006). Generally, these studies indicate that traumatic experiences during the early years of life cause progressive developmental impacts on the brain, hence implying that the development of post traumatic stress disorder, to some extent, is determined by the stage of neural development of a person (Sapolsky, 1996). It is also suggested that hippocampus atrophy may be a risk factor for the development of PSTD. This is based on comparison studies of twins who have post traumatic stress disorder exposed and those who did not have the disorder with other normal individuals. The study demonstrated that both the twins exposed to trauma and those not exposed had reduced hippocampi volumes as compared to the control group (Sapolsky, 1996). As regards to metabolic alterations in the brain of people with PSTD, various studies using positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging techniques have been carried mostly in adults. These studies have indicated higher activities in the amygdale and anterior paralimbic areas, and reduced activity around the anterior cingulated and orbitofrontal sections in patients with PSTD (Havard Women’s Health Watch, 2005). Assessment of Trauma and PSTD Assessment of trauma is the initial phase in the diagnosis of post traumatic stress disorder. It involves assessing if a person has experienced a traumatic situation, and identifying the situations that the person has had exposure to. The event or situation has to be evaluated whether it is life threatening. This is a significant step since symptoms of the disorder like re-experiencing, avoidance, numbing, arousal, and concentration difficulties need to be examined against particular events. PSTD is assessed through a cluster of three symptoms including re-experiencing, avoidance and arousal. Appearance of the symptoms should be determined, whether they started immediately following exposure to the trauma and whether the symptoms are progressively increasing (Robertson, Humphreys Ray, 2004). Diagnosis of PSTD Diagnosis of post traumatic stress disorder is based on certain set of criteria, which are six in number. The first criterion is the demonstration of the existence of a stressor. An individual must have been exposed to, experienced or threatened with a situation where death or physical harm was eminent or real. The second criterion is the existence of re-experiencing symptoms, whereby the affected individual persistently perceives imaginary threats witnessed or experienced before. This mostly occurs as flashbacks and the affected individual feels and behaves as if the trauma is repeating. Re-experiencing may also come in form of distressing memories and nightmares, particularly when the person faced with situations related to the trauma. In some cases, the patients may present with physiological or psychological stress reactions such as full-blown panic attacks. The third criterion for diagnosis is the existence of avoidance and numbing symptoms (Robertson, Humphreys Ray, 2004). Individuals presenting with this disorder often try to escape trauma-related thoughts and actions and regularly present with reduced capabilities to engage in pleasure activities, difficulty in recalling some dimensions of the trauma, withdrawal from social activities, and detachment. The forth criterion includes observation of symptoms related to hyperarousal and hypervigilance. In this criterion, persons affected by post traumatic stress disorder may exhibit features such as lack of concentration, irritability, and disturbed sleep patterns. The fifth criterion is the demonstration that re-experiencing symptoms, avoidance of actions and thoughts related to trauma, withdrawal, and irritability, and lack of concentration, disturbed sleep patterns, and irritability symptoms have occurred persistently for more than one month. The last criterion is the demonstration that the combined symptoms impairs with the functional and social abilities of the affected individual, coupled with significant distress. Under this criterion, the existence of PSTD is ruled out if the patient presents with mild symptoms or when the person exhibits competent functional abilities (Wolfgang et al., 2012). Treatment of PSTD The major treatment intervention measures for patients who have post traumatic stress disorder are, â€Å"cognitive behavioral therapy, pharmacotherapy and individual and group dynamic therapy† (Wolfgang et al. 2012, p. 72). Cognitive-behavioral Therapy This is the most effective form of treatment currently available for PSTD. The main approaches to cognitive-behavioral therapy involve exposure therapy and anxiety management interventions. Exposure therapies mostly focus on the elimination of the strong effects caused by fear conditioning in people suffering from post traumatic stress disorder. These therapeutic approaches are based on the recognition that consistent exposure to perceived threats helps in decreasing the victim’s fear response to stimuli associated with trauma. Further, exposure therapy also helps in lessening the victim’s sympathetic nervous system and adrenergic hyperactivity triggered by trauma related stimuli (Wolfgang et al., 2012). Anxiety management interventions are usually geared towards equipping the patient with skills that can help in decreasing anxiety. These strategies, therefore, involve training the patient on areas like relaxation, social skills, stress management, and cognitive restructuring among others. Cognitive restructuring is the most preferred training since it helps patients to be able to correct the impaired appraisal mechanisms, thus lessening their tendency to perceive threats from unwarranted situations. Cognitive-behavioral therapy can be provided on individual basis or in a group. In group psychotherapy, the patients are given trainings through psychoeducation, exposure and cognitive processing (Vieweg et al., 2006). Pharmacotherapy Based on the identified neurobiological abnormalities that accompany post traumatic stress disorder, pharmacotherapeutic interventions can help in the treatment of many associated symptoms such as anxiety, depression and insomnia. Pharmacotherapy is often essential before induction of the patient to other therapeutic approaches like cognitive-behavioral therapy and psychodynamic therapy (Gibson, 2012). Many studies on the efficacy of antidepressants such as imipramine and fluoxetine have generated mixed results, often indicating that patients having severe and chronic PSTD show refractory responses towards these medications. Clinical trials on the effectiveness of anti-adrenergic drugs like propranolol and clonidine also yield promising results, indicating the possible benefits in treating this disorder (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012). Dynamic psychotherapy This form of therapy involves encouraging the patient to make free association of ideas and feelings, while allowing the psychotherapist to make interpretations of the implications of the associations. The psychotherapist also provides recommendations depending on the comprehension of the situations and the perceived causes of the symptoms. The main objective of this form of therapy is to unravel the exact nature of the patient’s psyche so as to help in managing the psychic tension (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012).This therapy approach, therefore, relies on the establishment of an interpersonal relationship between the patient and the psychotherapist. It can be applied in various contexts such as in individual psychotherapy, group psychotherapy, and family therapy among other areas. In dealing with PSTD patients, the dynamic psychotherapy approach mostly targets the creation of a trustworthy and safe environment so as to enable the patient reveal the hidden traumatic experiences. Once the traumatic content has been obtained, focus shifts to analysis of the trauma in detail and examinations of the re-experiences together with the avoidance symptoms. Patients are finally guided to disengage from the perceived threat and make appropriate reconnections in their social life (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012). Recommendations Because of the increased rates of traumatic experiences in the world nowadays, prevalence of PSTD is anticipated to increase with time. It is imperative that more research be carried out to develop appropriate prevention and early intervention measures to curb the disorder (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). These measures should be based on the already established risk factors for the disorder and should mainly target individuals exhibiting acute stress symptoms so that early cognitive-behavioral interventions are given. It is also important that further research be carried out on the neurobiological aspect of posttraumatic stress disorder, particularly in children (Rosen, 2004). These studies will provide more information regarding functional and structural alterations in the brain associated with this disorder to enable designing of appropriate diagnosis tools. Conclusion Post traumatic stress disorder is an anxiety disorder presumed to be caused by traumatic experiences. However, many individuals exposed to traumatic events do not develop the disorder. In addition, the prevalence of the disorder in people who have been traumatized is low, thus indicating the existence of other certain risk factors that predispose some individuals to develop the disorder. Intensive studies have helped in creating more understanding of the function of the risk factors in the development of the disorder, and subsequent development of treatment approaches. Despite various interventions such as CBT and pharmacotherapy aiding in management of PSTD, there is need to conduct more studies to establish measures that can be used as early interventions and proper diagnostic tools for PSTD. References Edsall, S., Karnik, N. Steiner, H. (2005). â€Å"Childhood trauma.† In, Clinical child psychiatry, 2nd ed, Eds. Klykylo, W. and Kay, J. London: John Wiley sons. Fletcher, K. (1996). Childhood posttraumatic stress disorder. New York, NY: Guildford Publications Inc. Fletcher, S., Creamer, M. Forbes, D. (2010). Preventing post traumatic stress disorder: Are drugs the answer? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44, 1064-1071. Ford, J. D. (2009). Post traumatic stress disorder: Science and practice. New York, NY: Academic Press. Fullerton, C. S. Ursano, R. J. (2005). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Acute and long-term responses to trauma and disaster. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press. Gibson, C. (2012). Review of posttraumatic stress disorder and chronic pain: The path to integrated care. JRRD, 49(5), 753-776. Harvard Women’s Health Watch. (2005). Not getting over it: Post-traumatic stress disorder. Keanne, T. M., Marshall, A. D. Taft, C. T. (2006) . Posttraumatic stress disorder: Etiology, epidemiology, and treatment outcome. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 161-197. McCauley, J., Kern, D. E., Kolodner, K., Dill, L., Schroeder, A. F., DeChant, H. K., rydden, J., Derogatis, L. R. Bass, E. B. (1997). Clinical characteristics of women with a history of childhood abuse: Unhealed wounds. JAMA, 277, 1362-1368. Robertson, M., Humphreys, L. Ray, R. (2004). Psychological treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: Recommendations for the clinician based on a review of literature. J Psychiatr Pract, 10(2): 106-18. Rosen, G. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Issues and controversies. West Sussex: John Wiley Sons. Sapolsky, R. M. (1996). Stress, glucocorticoids, and damage to the nervous system: The current state of confusion. Stress, 1(1), 1-19. Schnurr, P. P., Friedman, M. J. Bernardy, N. C. (2002). Research on posttraumatic stress disorder: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and assessment. Journal of Clinical Psycholog y, 58(8), 877-889. Vieweg, W. V., Julius, D. A., Fernandez, A., Beatty-Brooks, M., Hettema, J. M. Pandurangi, A. K. (2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Clinical features, pathophysiology, and treatment. Am J Med, 119(5), 383-390. Wisco, B. E., Marx, B. P. Keane, T. M. (2012). Screening, diagnosis, and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Military Medicine, 177(8), 7-13. Wolfgang, W., Falk, L., Frank, L. Johannes, K. (2012). Psychodynamic psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood abuse- principles for a treatment manual. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 76(1), 69-93.

Thursday, November 14, 2019

Importance of Shell Shock in Pat Barkers Regeneration :: Pat Barker Regeneration Essays

Importance of Shell Shock in Pat Barker's Regeneration Pat Barker's Regeneration contains references to people, places, and cultural elements of particular significance to her themes as well as to the study of the First World War. One cultural reference, that of shell shock, is made early in the novel. On page four, Dr. William Rivers learns that Siegfried Sassoon is being sent to Craiglockhart War Hospital with a case of shell shock. To prevent shell shock from crippling the patients, Craiglockhart emphasizes the value of therapy, a theme in the novel, as a way to fight back against the mental battles. The term shell shock was first coined in 1915 by C.S. Myers in The Lancet to describe the disorder found on the battlefield in soldiers who had been exposed to an exploding shell (Spiller). During the beginning of World War One, the disorder was common only among soldiers. Victims were often mocked and labeled cowards by their peers, causing many to desert the army. Around three hundred of these men were shot, and hundreds more were imprisoned for their apparent cowardness (Storr). Soon officers began falling ill as well, and by 1917, the ratio of shell-shocked officers to shell-shocked enlisted men was an astounding 1: 6 (Bourke). With this shift, shell shock became recognized as a legitimate medical disorder. The symptoms of shell shock were numerous and varied from soldier to soldier. Physical effects ranged from trembling, sweating, insomnia, diarrhea, and minor twitches to paralysis, blindness, and muteness. Victims also experienced anguish, anxiety, and the inability to control their emotions. As a result, most were unable to separate their past from reality. During the war, psychologist Karl Bimbaum observed "great weariness and profuse weeping, even in otherwise strong men" (Spiller). Many of the soldiers exhibited what Sigmund Freud termed conversion disorders, which were subconsciously-formed problems such as the inability to walk, talk, see, or hear (Stuttaford). These symptoms were beyond the patients' control. Shell shock had devastating effects on the British Army. Over 80,000 cases of shell shock were treated during World War One (Bourke). Even after the war, symptoms continued to surface in a majority of the victims. Years later, many veterans still complained of frequent nightmares and hallucinations. In 1927, over 65,000 men remained in mental hospitals suffering from shell shock acquired during the war (Spiller). In every military conflict since World War One, shell shock has been a problem among combat forces.

Tuesday, November 12, 2019

Edgar Allen Poe’s The Fall of the House of Usher Essay

The Gothic tradition has played a central role in creating architecture, poetry, literature, film and even art, such as Henry Fuselis’ 1781 painting, â€Å"The Nightmare†. Oscar Wilde borrowed heavily from the gothic tradition when creating his 1890s novel, â€Å"The Picture of Dorian Gray† and in this essay I am going to be looking at certain gothic sections of Oscar Wildes’ novel where he utilizes the fundamental aspects of the Gothic tradition. I will be looking into â€Å"The Picture of Dorian Gray† and how Wilde plays on the horror, the horrific, the suspense and the supernatural that all contribute to a Gothic mood. The term Gothic commands a vast semantic field of varied terrain; a range of meanings, definitions and associations. It is therefore very hard to define because it covers such a broad portfolio of different aspects. Historically the Goths were one of the several Germanic tribes who were one of the peoples who freed Europe from the clutches of the Roman Empire, culminating in its collapse in 476 AD. History itself has manipulated the term Gothic to be associated with the idea of freedom. One of the reasons the Gothic genre is so arduous to define is that it is constantly evolving and so after being associated with freedom it began to be linked with dreams. The rigid hierarchy of the Victorian era meant that the only place you could explore true freedom was in your dreams. And so again the idea evolved once more to nightmares where you could explore the dark side of human nature. The Gothic novel first became popular in England during the late 1700s and the early 1800s. At the end of the eighteenth century, England found itself in the midst of a social upheaval and it was out of this that the gothic genre emerged. The Gothic novel was invented almost single handledly by Horace Walpole, whose 1764 novel â€Å"The Castle of Otranto† contains essentially all the elements that constitute the genre. Walpole’s novel was imitated not only in the 18th century and not only in novel form but also in poetry, art and even later films. Poe’s, 1839, novel â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher†, also possesses the innate features of the Gothic tale: a haunted house, dreary landscape, mysterious sickness and doubled personality (which will be discussed in a later paragraph). A mysterious family or past is a very popular theme throughout the Gothic genre and this is clearly evident in â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher†, where Poe likens the house to the genetic family line of the Usher family, which he refers to as the house of Usher. In the novel the building is described as â€Å"neglected†¦crumbling†¦old†¦discoloured1† which refers not only to the mansion itself but is a potent metaphor for the Usher family itself. Furthermore in â€Å"The Picture of Dorian Gray† we see that Dorian’s past is exactly this. His typical Gothic family history includes duels to the death, suicide, young brides and romantic marriages. This also shows the obvious link between the Romantic Movement and the Gothic. One could say that the Gothic genre is Romanticism gone wrong. For example they both have castles but in the Gothic the castles tend to be derelict or haunted and, damsels in distress are seen in both genres as well. Throughout the Victorian era women were thought of as always being virtuous even though the expected behaviour of a husband was the complete opposite. The Gothic genre was an escape from reality and so in the genre emerged the controversial use of women not as pure, chaste people but as monsters and seductresses. Such examples of this could be the tragic death of Dorian Gray’s lover, Sibyl Vain: â€Å"she had swallowed something†¦some dreadful thing they use at theatres†¦either prussic acid or white lead†¦2† The girl’s death is typically gothic through the sheer horrifying nature of the death, swallowing acid, and highlights the waste of tangible life. In addition the women at the opium den is primal gothic, where she asks James Vain: â€Å"why didn’t you kill him [Dorian Gray]3†, which is a horrific question in itself. It is said that she: â€Å"hissed out† these words, which is a potent onomatopoeia, as if she is a snake; a typically frightening and monstrous creature to some. Also her face is described as â€Å"haggard4†, and is perhaps used by Wilde as if to liken her to a witch, only adds to the gothic aura. When James Vain looks back: â€Å"the women had vanished5†, making the women seem in a way, supernatural, another crucial theme in a gothic piece of literature. This was very effective to the Victoria audience as it was totally out of the normal and something that many would never dream of seeing. Furthermore writers in the Victorian era used many contempory issues as a basis of their works in order to bring the horror more to life. In Robert Louis Stevenson’s â€Å"Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde†, the horrific murder of Sir Carew was linked to the similar murders by the infamous Jack the Ripper. This theme is very common, and recurrent in many gothic art forms. In Francis Ford Coppola’s, 1992 film, â€Å"Bram Stoker’s Dracula† Lucy after being bitten by Dracula, starts to become mysteriously sick and evil. Soon after there is a scene where she is about to feed on a baby, demonstrating how the damsel in distress has became evil. Women in Dracula are made into characters to fear rather than the embodiment of purity and goodness. Damsels in distress are also in Poe’s story where Roderick’s sister, Madeline is entombed before she has actually died. This idea is evident in â€Å"The Picture of Dorian Gray† as well, where the damsel is Sibyl Vane who dies early on in the novel however one could also say that Basil, the artist who painted the portrait, is the damsel in distress too. The Gothic genre allowed you to escape from reality, to explore freedom elsewhere and in â€Å"The Picture of Dorian Gray† Dorian tries to find a freedom that takes him away from his reality and his ever-growing sins. The opium dens offer him this release from his memory which are depicted â€Å"like a horrible malady, [that] was eating his soul away6†. This is proven by the fact that Dorian Gray flees to one of these dens, after murdering Basil Hallward; to presumably forget about the awfulness of his actions by losing conciseness in a drug induced languor. The dens located in the most derelict sites of London, maybe represent the squalid state of Dorian Gray’s mind and the actual dens described with words as: â€Å"tattered†¦dulled†¦distorted†¦greasy†¦ochre-coloured saw dust†¦spilt liquor7†, perhaps reflect his mortification of his soul. Drugs seem to give a new tempry freedom for Dorian to experience. Drugs seem to give a freedom which is what the Gothic represents in its entirety. One of the elements of the Gothic is the horrific and this is very vividly brought to life in â€Å"The Picture of Dorian Gray† where Sible Vane kills herself with prussic acid and also when Alan Campbell graphically destroys Basil Hallward body in Dorian’s attic which is almost like Mary Shelley’s Gothic novel, â€Å"Frankenstein† reversed. The main idea of a Gothic novel was the frightening and so in Wilde’s novel this is used frequently. The use of far off lands terrifying to the Victorian audience, is a key effect, and one relating to the original idea of the Gothic, although the Victorian Gothic novel found little need for ruins, rugged landscapes and derelict castles, the new landscape was the city as a source for menace and the dark. For example on Dorian’s way to the opium dens one day Wilde describes the route with prime Gothic vocabulary: â€Å"dimly-lit streets, past gaunt black-shadowed archways and evil-looking houses†¦ grotesque children†¦monstrous apes8.† For the upper classes reading the book, would never have been to the dark east end of London so they were left feeling as though they were in some desolate wild place. Another effect Wilde utilizes to scare the audience is how he likens inanimate objects to living things such as when he describes shadows as if they were alive. For example the way that Wilde likens shadows to living things: â€Å"†¦fantastic shadows were silhouetted against some lamp-lit blind†¦ they moved like monstrous marionettes, and made gestures like living things9.† Wilde is also able to make shadows frightening, by personifying the darkness: â€Å"the evening darkened in the room. Noiselessly, and with silver feet, the shadows crept in from the garden. The colours faded wearily out of things10†. From these extracts Wilde creates a typical Gothic mood that is dark and scary. There are some sections of Wilde’s book that seem as though they are describing certain Gothic works of art namely Henry Fusel’s, 1781, â€Å"The Nightmare† where he exploits all the original Gothic traits into a painting showing a women lying on a bed with a grotesque creature on her chest. Also it has many shadows and an ere horse in the background. The picture has all the elements that make the Gothic genre: dark setting, full of shadows, odd creatures, a damsel in distress and the unnatural. The Gothic theme is also represented in the painting, â€Å"The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters† by Goya, 1799. They both have in the paintings a person sleeping and Gothic images around them suggesting that they are in the persons’ dreams. Double personalities, or doppelganger is used a lot among Gothic writers and is demonstrated in â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher†, with Roderick and Madeline, the mansion and the genetic Usher family and this element occurs also in â€Å"The Picture of Dorian Gray† with Dorian. In the novel the double personality is Dorian and his painting, Dorian representing the physical and the painting representing the â€Å"inside† or the soul of Dorian. However the theme is much more widely spread and is in other Gothic works such as Robert Louis Stevenson’s â€Å"Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde†. As in â€Å"Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde† where one character, transforms in to another, when Dorian Gray has the idea to kill Basil Hallward, his urge is described in the book as: â€Å"the mad passions of a hunted animal [that] stirred within him11†. This particularly animalistic description, perhaps serves to highlight the gothic genre even more by making a comparison between animals, that are not restricted in society to act in a certain way, and are thus free to act as they please. By stark contrast, Dorian Gray as a human is restricted to act in a certain way, that is considered morally correct. His act of killing, in human society is considered as a sin. The supernatural is key in increasing the horror of a gothic novel, such as the fact that Dracula does not have reflection in the mirror. In addition when Harker describes how Dracula left the castle: â€Å"†¦I saw the whole man slowly emerge from the window and began to crawl down the castle wall†¦12† from this extract we can see that Dracula is a supernatural character as his actions are unexplainable. However the supernatural theme running through the book, reaches a dramatic zenith with Dorian’s end. His fatal error is absolutely supernatural with the description of the unrecognisable wrinkly old man where there had recently been a vibrant youth adding to both the awful moral and supernatural effect of the novel. Above all the most gothic and supernatural thing in the book is the portrait of Dorian Gray himself. The painting acts as a guidance to Dorian and almost becomes a moral barometer. After murdering Basil Hallward, the portrait reveals the sin by changing. The portrait is described as a canvas that had: â€Å"sweated blood13†, a blood that is expressed as a: â€Å"loathsome red dew that gleamed14†. Dorian grows increasingly uncomfortable over the course of novel with what the disfigured portrait signifies about himself. And as the novel progresses and the painting continues to register the effects of time and dissipation, and we start to see the degree to which Dorian is undone by the sins that his portrait reflects and the degree to which he suffers for allowing the painting to act as a â€Å"Visible emblem of conscience†. This in itself is a very gothic idea living a life without consequences and letting the portrait bear the sins and this is exactly what Dorian did until his sins caught up with him. The Victorian era was very difficult to live in because of its rigid structured social hierarchy that allowed no â€Å"impurities† or non ethnical or righteous ideas. However the Gothic genre allowed you to do all these things and to explore irrational fantasies and social taboos. This is probably why Wilde liked the genre because being a homosexual he could not explore his own freedom in his own life but instead he possibly explored this through the homoerotic theme of novel. He managed to escape and explore another freedom through the gothic genre. â€Å"The Picture of Dorian Gray† is not an entire gothic novel but a fair amount is and I think that with the gothic sections Wilde has successfully created a primo piece of Gothic literature. 1 The Picture of Dorian Gray, By Oscar Wilde, Published by Penguin.

Sunday, November 10, 2019

Blues Musician Ethel Waters Essay

Triple threat Ethel Waters (October 31, 1896-September 1, 1977) amazing ability to entertain audiences with an unreal stage presence and spell bounding singing voice can be viewed by downloading clips of her acts. She was a Black heavy set entertainer coming from an unusually bad childhood. All of those experiences she was born into seemed to influence her to become stronger and handle the setbacks in her career and life in general. Her singing career began in 1917 on a Halloween night when she showed up for a costume party. Her friends encouraged her to sing just for fun. She did, astounding the audience with her entrancing singing style that was uniquely hers. After hearing her singing performances at the Halloween party, Lincoln Theatre in Baltimore Maryland immediately offered her a contract. After she left Lincoln Theatre, she performed at Harlem nightclubs, working till exhaustion. Later she joined a carnival, working nightly Vaudeville shows. After Vaudeville, she sang in another exclusive Harlem night club with Besse Smith. Besse Smith requested Waters refrain from singing Blues. Besse was already the designated Blues singer. Waters was fine with Smith’s request, because her unique style allowed her to sing multiple categories of music. â€Å"Ethel Waters was an innovative and terrifically influential singer, and she broke through racial barriers in movies, theater, nightclubs, radio, film, and television opening doors for everyone who came after her; She deserves much better to be remembered† (McCorkle, 1994). Ethel Waters Singing and Acting Style; Ethel Waters contributions setting her apart from other singers is that she sings Blues, Jazz, Showtunes, Pop, Dance music, Big Band, Broadway and Gospel. Most of her songs are ballads, yet carry upbeat Jazz embellishments. Her voice does not even sound humanly possible. In the 1940’s there were no voice enhancing technology. She developed this unique style of vocal pronunciation by combining two different elements passed down from her mother and her grandmother. Her grandmother told her to keep a low soft, toned voice. Her mother encouraged aggressiveness, loudness, forceful vocal tones. She combined the two styles of vocal projections to sing unlimited types of music. Her voice is not loud or flashy, but filled with emotions, projecting her charisma to the audience. After her Harlem night club acts, she sang â€Å"Oh Daddy. † Oh Daddy resulted in Ethel Waters being the first Black female signed by Black Swan Records. The song immediately topped best selling charts. Because of popularity from the song, she toured with the Black Swan Jazz Masters and Fletcher Henderson. From this tour, she became noted for her dance shimmys and soft, soothing singing style. Her personality and spirituality came through as she created individual ways of interpreting lyrics of songs she sang. Bringing her own individualism to music carried over into movie roles she played. Waters was cast in many television roles in 1920’s-30’s. She played many mammy roles. She always brought her own flair to the scripts, never interpreting roles exactly as written. â€Å"What was the most remarkable about Waters performance was how she reconstructed the mammy character into one that challenged stereotypes† (McElrath, no date). Producers not only seem to not mind her taking initiative to try something different, but were actually impressed by Waters own interpretations of the written scripts. Mammy characters were being portrayed as strong Black females, resembling lifetime heroes. â€Å"Mamba’s Daughters† is the movie that popularized and brought recognition to Waters as an actress. At this time, Black actors had only non prominent roles available to them. In 1943, all of that was about to change. She took advantage of what was available to her, incorporated superb acting skills and stage presence, breaking limiting traditions. Today, Waters is greatly appreciated by many Black female singers, dancers and actresses for opening doors for them. Cabin in the Sky; Cabin in the Sky was first released as an MGM Broadway musical in 1940. The Cabin in the Sky was a story about a man who was murdered because he could not repay his gambling debts. He has only a few months to save his soul before he can enter into heaven. In 1943, the film version of Cabin in the Sky was released, being the very first production to hire an all African American cast. This was the show that was the breaking point, allowing Black actors to play significant roles, eventually making them eligible to be nominated and receive awards. In these times, it was a financial risk to cast an all Black production. Everytime a new movie, musical, video or album is made, the production company invest plenty of money, hoping it will be a success with the public. MGM was a big enough and financially stable enough company to take the financial risk. It was also the changing of times. People wanted different entertainment, something extraordinary, something they never seen before. Waters, once again changed up her script she played as Petuna. This time, she added a very shocking, unexpected dimension to the role. Besides breaking racial barriers, Cabin in the Sky threw out all rules of ethic modesty. Waters stunned everyone by adding a a sexy, suggestive musical dance style influence to her character, she starred as a female singing and dancing while taking a bubble bath. In 1943, this was considered â€Å"past the limits. † The show was a huge success so much that it was nominated for an award; the Academy Award for Best Original Song. The show was nominated for the song, â€Å"Happiness is a thing called Joe,† sung by Ella Fitzgerald. Cabin in the Sky made historical changes, had people talking endlessly about the show for years. For all these years, no one ever heard of it. It was recently released on DVD in 2006. Declining Work for Ethel Waters; Even though she was a fabulous triple threat, an asset to any show, Waters quickly found herself unemployable. While theatre and music producers welcomed Waters changing up the roles she played to suit her individuality, there is one part of her that was not acceptable. All the producers complained about her bad tempered attitude. Usually, when something works, the producers will put up with most anything from actors. However, that phase is passing, because there is to many talented actors who will not cause problems. From 1942-1949, producers refused to cast her in any roles. For a while, Cabin in the Sky was her last role. The producers had enough when her temper flared her co-worker, Lena Horne sprained her ankle. Waters went into a jealous rage claiming that Horne was getting far to much attention. In 1949, producers gave her another chance. She played another mammy role in â€Å"Pinky. † Her exceptional performance in â€Å"Pinky† won her an award for Best Supporting Actress. (McElrath, no date). The Civil Rights Movement in the 50’s-60’s brought a change that did not help Waters. People felt her roles as mammy’s were degrading to Blacks, and showing them in a way that would not contribute to their respect. When Waters was growing up, her career ambitions was to work for rich white people. She did not work for rich white people, but her roles where a Black woman working for other people. The Civil Rights Movement frowned upon Black actresses playing domestic roles. Although Ethel Waters achieved respect for Blacks, her accomplishments are all forgotten. She is remembered as an actress that promoted Black housekeepers. Many people think of her as someone who broke racial and other barriers in society. His Eye On The Sparrow; Waters Autobiography â€Å"The two great struggles in Waters life were poverty and racism. But matching these were her two great strengths: an iron will and deep faith† (Anderson 2002). Waters spoke proudly of her spiritual faith, letting in be known her religious traditions is what gave her strength to overcoming obstacles and struggles. In 1951, Waters autobiography was published, named His Eye On the Sparrow. His Eye On the Sparrow, originally sung by two white men, Civillia Martin and Charles Gabriel, belongs to the gospel category. African American Ethel Waters were greatly inspired by lyrics of the song so much she used it for her intriguing autobiography. She recognized the lyrics as a reflection of her own life, and a reminder as to where her amazing strength came from. â€Å"Waters was blessed, however, with a singing voice, and would work her way through the black vaudeville circuit to Broadway and into Hollywood. She was known as a singer of Jazz, Blues and show music, but also for her strong Christian faith-she sang spirituals and gospels on tour with Billy Graham† (Jones, 2005). According to her, success was not influenced on behavior of people surrounding her, her race or economic or disadvantaged background, but influenced by her beliefs. â€Å"Why should I feel discouraged? Why should the shadows come†¦I sing because I’m happy; I sing because I am free† (Lyrics). The people surrounding her were disadvantaged, but she was strong and gifted. And she was Black! Those strong beliefs and sense of spirituality were all she needed for thriving success. â€Å"His eye is on the Sparrow, and I know he watches over me† (Lyrics). Fair or not, in those days people in positions to offer employment opportunities saw a Black person, and opinions regarding their abilities stopped right there. However, people like Ethel Waters changed all of that. Today, music is surpassing limitations because of combining cultures and different styles of music. The book follows her life from being born illegitimately to an unloving, uncaring mother living in poverty conditions to her fame on Broadway. Conclusion; Although Ethel did not realize it at the time, she lived a life that was very interesting and fascinating to many people. She was in demand for many performances because she was a fluent Jazz and Blues female vocalists. However, she sung all types of music. She opens the new world that blues and pop music can be sung by one singer. Her famous career began at a Halloween costume party, progressed to a professional theater, then Harlem Nightclubs, Vaudeville, eventually on television, and Broadway. Her acting career was just as successful, even with its ups and downs. Her religious beliefs and faith in God played significant roles providing her with inner strength making it possible to bring great entertainment across the screens and stages. Her autobiography, written just a few years before she died was based on a highly spiritual song played in sacred settings. Her accomplishments can be remembered in her movie Cabin in the Sky and her book, His Eye on the Sparrow. In 80 years, she made contributions and changes through her career with great influences. On September 1, 1977, she passed away of cancer. Notes; Anderson, George M. 2002. â€Å"Of Many Things. † America 186, no. 17: 2. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed October 23, 2007). http://search. ebscohost. com/login. aspx? direct=true&db=a9h&AN=6661900&site=ehost-live Jones, Kenneth, 2005 â€Å"His Eye on the Sparrow† Playbill Article 95572 PlayBill. com(Accessed October 23) http://www. playbill. com/news/article/95572. html McCorkle, Susannah. 1994. â€Å"The mother of us all. † American Heritage 45, no. 1: 60. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (Accessed October 23, 2007). http://search. ebscohost. com/login. aspx? direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9401267528&site=ehost-live McElrath, Jessica (no date) â€Å"Remembering the Career of Ethel Waters† About. com; African American History ( Accessed October 24, 2007) http://afroamhistory. about. com/od/ethelwaters/a/bio_waters_e. htm Clips; TCM Trailers; Cabin in the Sky http://video. aol. com/video/blackvoices-tcm-trailers-cabin-in-the-sky/1636935 Ethel Waters; His Eye on the Sparrow http://video. aol. com/video-detail/ethel-waters-his-eye-is-on-the-sparrow/4163930375